The International Association for Automation and Robotics in Construction
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Abstract: The International Organizing Committee of the Creative Construction Conferences (CCC) and the International Association for Automation and Robotics in Construction (IAARC) are pleased to present the Proceedings of the 14th Creative Construction Conference (CCC 2025). This event was held from June 14-17, 2025, in Petrčane, Croatia. The 14th edition of ...
Abstract: Infrastructural challenges posed by rapid urbanization, with a particular focus on the healthcare sector. Urban expansion has introduced complex demands that traditional government-led financing mechanisms-such as tax-based funding-can no longer fully support. Modern infrastructure development, ranging from intra-city and inter-city roads to information technology systems, must be inclusive and stakeholder-centred ...
Abstract: Healthcare facilities play an important role in the welfare of countries while posing many challenges to health service providers. In addition to high cost and multi-specialization, design and execution complexities are a few challenges in building such facilities that often lead to delays, cost overruns, and off-specifications. The success of ...
Abstract: This study examines safety climate perceptions in construction using two models: Safety Climate Model (SMC) and the Nordic Safety Climate Questionnaire (NOSACQ-50). Data from 20 projects of various sizes (ranging from 11 to 50 floors) and company years of experience (1->25) were analysed using the 5-point Likert scale and ANOVA ...
Abstract: The construction industry, despite being one of the largest contributors to the global economy, is one of the least digitized industries. The application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) offers a transformative opportunity to change the industry to be more efficient, safe, and cost-effective. This study analyses the current situation of AI ...
Abstract: Growing market of construction industry as well as limitations in access to basic building materials such as timber, steel, and cement force engineers to use alternative building materials. At the same time because of natural disasters and wars there is a need of building mobile, non-expensive, easy and quick to ...
Abstract: One of the main objectives of the system of state socialism was the abolition of private property. In this spirit, the market was also to be eliminated from the economic process as a method and instrument of price formation. The real estate sector has been the arena of state influence, ...
Abstract: In recent years, BIM (Building Information Modeling) methodologies have become an essential and effective tool for managing a civil engineering project in all its stages. BIM technology provides comprehensive digital insights into a building or infrastructure's structural and non-structural elements. This study introduces a practical, BIM-based framework designed to serve ...
Abstract: Falls are among the most frequent and hazardous incidents in the construction industry, presenting significant challenges due to their unpredictability and severe consequences. Beyond fall-related accidents, construction sites face a wide range of other safety hazards, necessitating the adoption of advanced technological solutions. This study introduces two innovative safety technologies ...
Abstract: This research introduces a novel procedure for considering corrosion effects within critical infrastructure exposed to seismic risk, focusing on reinforced concrete structures. Most conventionally developed seismic fragility curves cannot assess the progressive material degradation over time, such as corrosion. At the same time, the present study proposes a novel approach ...
Abstract: In light of the pressing need to adapt buildings to future climate change and the scale of the expenditure involved (estimated approximately at PLN 4 trillion), fundamental research and theoretical studies in this domain are crucial. Without the input provided by such research, it is impossible to assist building owners ...
Abstract: This research investigates the effectiveness of integrated principles of sustainable knowledge of CPM that is "construction project management" which is a comprehensive development initiative designed to enhance leadership skills, competencies, and career prospects for managers and engineers who works in mega projects of construction industry. The primary aim of the ...
Abstract: This study examines the interrelationships among the Time, Cost, and Quality (TCQ) dimensions of project performance and their combined influence on economic outcomes. Using Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA), we identify typical performance patterns and assess whether strong performance in one dimension tends to align with others. The results reveal asymmetric ...
Abstract: Immersive technologies, such as Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) become important to improve the efficiency of the construction industry. VR and AR are already in use, particularly in inventory and design. In the construction process and especially in the communication during the construction process, AR and VR are ...
Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the structural vulnerability of construction projects, especially in crises when the effectiveness of traditional scheduling approaches has significantly decreased. This paper presents a novel algorithmic approach that combines graph-based project structure simplification with cost-constrained profit maximization based on the mathematical model of the precedence-constrained knapsack ...
Abstract: In the field of construction project management, an approach focused on planned activities, such as the one commonly practiced using tools like MS-Project, often limits the flexibility and efficiency of managers. This article proposes a paradigm shift towards management that is centred on deliverables, work packages, and milestones, thus allowing ...
Abstract: In the construction industry, occupational accidents account for 13.78% of all workplace incidents across various sectors, indicating a significant level of safety risk at construction sites. Therefore, reducing the incidence of accidents on construction sites has become a critical challenge in promoting occupational safety education. In particular, when it comes ...
Abstract: In construction management as well as in real estate development an appropriate stakeholder analysis is essential to determine the roles a particular participant plays within the complex system of a project. This is, since though a major part of the projects' organization is available for being constructed sensibly, stakeholders typically ...
Abstract: The construction industry is widely recognised as one of the most hazardous industries due to the complexity of its projects and the rapid implementation of investment. A significant contributing factor to injuries and fatalities in this sector is human falls. The prevalence of accidents at work, particularly those attributed to ...
Abstract: Innovative Project Delivery models have been introduced in Germany and Austria to mitigate inefficiencies in major infrastructure projects, which often suffer from cost and schedule overruns. These new approaches emphasize risk-sharing, partnership-based collaboration, and innovative contract structures. However, traditional project management and calculation methods lack the necessary transparency, making them ...
Abstract: Building Information Modelling (BIM) has become a cornerstone for data-driven project management. However, the information requirements for BIM models used in cost estimation are often too high, making them difficult to meet, especially during the early stages of a project. This study explores the possibility to reduce these requirements by ...
Abstract: Civil society is frequently threatened by terror and war activities. The scenarios caused by these events are highly relevant to the continuous performance and safety of underground Critical Infrastructures (CIs) such as Nuclear Power Plants (NPPs), data centers and hazardous materials storage facilities. The present research is focused on the ...
Abstract: Object detection and segmentation are crucial for managing construction sites, aiding in tasks such as progress tracking, material management, and safety assurance. However, conventional methods encounter persistent challenges, including occlusion, variable lighting conditions, and the labor-intensive nature of dataset creation, which limit their adaptability to dynamic construction environments. This study ...
Abstract: The adoption of Building Information Modeling (BIM) in construction has increased over the past decade, becoming standard in high-rise projects that are resource-intensive and schedule-sensitive. BIM enhances project management by integrating design and detailed work packages, facilitating effective resource allocation and information retrieval throughout the project lifecycle. However, existing BIM-based ...
Abstract: Monitoring and assessing the progress and quality in road construction are crucial aspects of infrastructure development. Among these, the identification of surface structural-layer serves as a key task for progress control and quality management. Traditional manual inspection methods are inefficient and costly, especially given the spatially linear and narrow nature ...
Abstract: The adoption of Industry 4.0 technologies offers considerable potential to enhance occupational safety and health (OSH) in modern methods of construction (MMC). Maturity models provide a structured approach to guide this transition effectively. Although the previous studies have focused on the development of maturity models for Industry 4.0, OSH management, ...
Abstract: Microbial cementation technology based on microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) is gaining increased attention as a sustainable construction solution. Although extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) are known to play a crucial role in the natural biocementation process, the strategic utilization of organic matrices to enhance MICP efficiency remains insufficiently explored. ...
Abstract: Eaves tiles, as significant artefacts of Chinese cultural heritage, are valued for their intricate inscriptions, animal motifs, and repeating patterns, which offer critical insights into historic architecture, art, and ideology. However, environmental exposure and human activity degradation often obscure their repetitive and symmetrical structures, complicating direct analysis. The author proposes ...
Abstract: Residential retrofits are central to decarbonisation but risk unintended health impacts via indoor environmental quality (IEQ). This systematic review of 29 studies (2005-2024) employs the IEQ-Compass framework to evaluate retrofits across thermal comfort (THER), indoor air quality (IAQ), lighting (VIS), and acoustics (ACOU). While retrofits significantly reduce energy demand, they ...
Abstract: Construction site layout planning (CSLP) is a strategy and decision-making process for the placement of temporary facilities and areas within a construction site. CSLP initiates and affects the direction and productivity of projects. CSLP often encounters several challenges brought about by uncertainties and unquantified decisions. Research efforts to automate CSLP ...
Abstract: Construction sites are inherently hazardous environments where accidents and fatalities constitute a significant global concern. Despite continuous efforts to enhance safety, the incidence of workplace accidents within the construction industry remains elevated. This study introduces HUST AI Box, an AI and computer vision-based safety management system, enhanced by the integration ...
Abstract: The construction industry is one of the least digitized industries. According to this, there are a large number of different digital solutions for controlling and managing construction logistics. For this reason, it is currently not possible to carry out an overarching data analysis to identify optimization measures in construction logistics. ...
Abstract: The automatic on-site assembly of timber components using robotic systems has emerged as a significant research focus, addressing challenges such as labor shortages and carbon dioxide emissions within the construction industry. However, existing timber joints utilized in current research often exhibit limitations, including reduced structural strength, limited reusability, and susceptibility ...
Abstract: Ensuring both operational efficiency and structural safety in Automated Construction Systems (ACS) remains a critical challenge, particularly under complex high-rise construction environments characterized by uncertain loads and limited sensing precision. To address this issue, this study develops a hybrid physics-data-driven modeling framework to improve jacking efficiency and structural reliability of ...
Abstract: Construction sites are inherently hazardous environments where accidents can lead to severe human, financial, and legal consequences. Despite the growing adoption of safety regulations and monitoring systems, construction accidents remain a persistent issue, incurring substantial economic losses for companies and society. However, there is limited research on systematically quantifying the ...
Abstract: Large language models (LLMs) have recently gained attention in construction engineering for their ability to interpret technical documents, extract domain-specific information, and support natural language interfaces. To mitigate hallucination and improve factual reliability, retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) techniques have been widely adopted, enabling LLMs to ground their responses in external reference ...
Abstract: 3D concrete printing (3DCP) is considered a promising technology to digitise and transform the construction industry. The seamless design-to-fabrication workflow, the elimination of labour-intensive formwork and the general robotisation of construction are expected to significantly increase productivity in line with new architectural design possibilities. This paper presents the results of ...
Abstract: The challenges of climate change and resource scarcity are significant for the construction sector. In particular, materials such as concrete and masonry produce high CO2 emissions and require large amounts of limited raw materials. There are currently no practical tools for assessing building materials against a wide range of sustainability ...
Abstract: In recent years, the construction industry has undergone a profound transformation thanks to the integration of advanced parametric modelling methodologies and the adoption of increasingly sophisticated digital technologies. These tools have redefined design, construction and management processes, improving operational efficiency and opening new perspectives for predictive maintenance and infrastructure resilience. ...
Abstract: In recent years, AI has been increasingly utilized in the construction industry to address labour shortages and improve efficiency. While AI applications in construction management and site operations are advancing, their use in architectural design remains limited. This study proposes a novel method for evaluating floor plans quantitatively by simulating ...
Abstract: Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly being explored for robotics applications, enabling more natural and intuitive communication between humans and machines. In the construction industry, where automation has lagged behind other sectors and the workforce often lacks specialized robotics training, LLMs offer a promising solution for improving human-robot interaction. However, ...
Abstract: In the context of infrastructure planning, citizen objections play a central role in the participation process and in political decision-making. As these objections are often unstructured and not machine-readable, processing them is time-consuming and causes delays and inefficiencies in the management of public concerns. The aim of this study is to ...
Abstract: The sustainable preservation of large-scale, actively inhabited historical villages requires detailed and scalable methods for material-aware structure extraction and health monitoring. Traditional Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) RGB imagery, while accessible, suffers from poor adaptability in complex environments, particularly when attempting to distinguish between diverse roof types, repair materials, and naturally ...
Abstract: The construction sector is a major global source of environmental pollution, with significant direct and indirect impacts on the environment. Environmental aspects are divided into nine categories, one of which is local issues. Construction causes a multitude of local issues that serve as significant sources of environmental, social, and economic ...
Abstract: Sewer infrastructure is vital for flood prevention, environmental protection, and public health. However, sewer systems are prone to deterioration, and traditional maintenance approaches remain largely manual, reactive, and based on inconsistent data, resulting in inefficiencies. Despite the long duration and importance of the operational phase, clear use cases for digital ...
Abstract: Social conflicts in public construction projects have become increasingly complex due to growing involvement of diverse stakeholder and broader societal attention. These conflicts can escalate from regional and spread to national level unless they are unmanaged and can be significant risk to project success. With advancements in Natural Language Processing, ...
Abstract: Traditional data acquisition methods in construction often struggle with accuracy, efficiency, and adaptability, especially in dynamic jobsite conditions. These shortcomings can lead to elevated error rates, schedule overruns, and increased resource consumption. To address these issues, this paper presents the development of an autonomous robotic system that synergizes Simultaneous Localization ...
Abstract: Effective public infrastructure asset management is essential for ensuring the safety, sustainability, and resilience of societal systems. As infrastructure systems age and grow in complexity, data-driven approaches have become increasingly vital in supporting informed decision-making and resource optimization. However, effective infrastructure asset management planning is hindered by numerous challenges, such ...
Abstract: Construction workers' walking-related accidents, which refer to incidents occurring while construction workers transition between work areas rather than during task execution, account for 31% of construction site incidents and often result from workers' lack of awareness of site hazards. Despite their high frequency, existing accident classification methods primarily focus on ...
Abstract: The intensification of extreme rainfall events due to climate change has significantly increased flood risks, with levee overtopping emerging as a major cause of catastrophic failures. Accurate short-term water level forecasting is therefore essential, particularly in ungauged river systems where monitoring infrastructure is limited. However, existing deep learning models heavily ...
Abstract: Fireproofing spray works are critical for protecting the structural integrity of steel frames during fires, yet they present challenges related to worker safety and construction quality. While robotic automation has been explored to mitigate these risks, most existing robotic systems have focused on technical feasibility, overlooking user-centered design. This study ...
Abstract: Most of the fireproofing spray work on steel structures in construction sites is still carried out manually, resulting concerns about safety and low productivity. Although robotic systems have been introduced to address these issues, existing approaches often lack autonomous work area recognition and require operator intervention. To overcome these limitations, ...
Abstract: Unhealthy behaviours such as alcohol and tobacco consumption, overweight, and obesity can impact job performance through absenteeism and work limitations. This study assessed the lifestyles and health promotion of construction workers in a Chilean company using the Health-Promoting Lifestyle Profile II (HPLP II). The objective was to evaluate health responsibility, ...
Abstract: The manufacturing of modular buildings in factory-controlled environments is complex process, involving intricate task sequencing, resource allocation, and rigorous quality control. Traditional visualization and scheduling methods frequently fail to communicate these complexities effectively, resulting in inefficiencies, scheduling errors, and cost overruns. This research addresses these challenges by integrating Building Information ...
Abstract: Formwork represents a significant portion of construction costs, with its design and implementation largely dependent on the pressure exerted by fresh concrete. Accurate estimation of this pressure enables the optimization of formwork systems, reducing costs associated with materials, fabrication, labor, and transportation. This study aims to measure and analyze the ...
Abstract: The significance of environmental sustainability and therefore its assessment, is gradually gaining recognition as an important factor in holistic building design. However, due to the high resulting demand for information, Building Information Modelling (BIM) is increasingly seen as an important data source for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The manual integration ...
Abstract: Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are a significant issue in the construction industry, which continues to rely heavily on manual labor. On-site tasks involve heavy lifting, prolonged awkward postures, and long working hours-factors that heighten the risk of developing MSDs. The workforce plays a crucial role in project progress and quality; however, worker ...
Abstract: This study builds on the findings of our previous research, "Creation of a BIM-based facility maintenance and management data analysis platform", further developing an application to analyze facility management data using Building Information Modeling (BIM). As labor shortages grow in the expanding construction industry, streamlining tasks via digital transformation (DX) ...
Abstract: Visual analysis of the built environment plays a critical role in the Architectural, Engineering, Construction, and Operation (AECO) sector. This type of analysis enables detection of visible discrepancies between the as-is and as-planned states of an asset to support proper decision making for different managerial and operational applications, such as ...
Abstract: High-load, repetitive construction tasks pose significant risks for the development of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), which adversely affect workers' health, productivity, and quality of life, making accurate risk quantification crucial for timely prevention. In recent years, computer vision (CV) has demonstrated significant potential in assessing MSD risks by offering an automated, ...
Abstract: This paper presents a framework for integrating user interaction, building digital twins, and robotic automation to enhance facility management. The system leverages a Large Language Model (LLM) as the central interface, enabling the user to intuitively retrieve data from the digital twin and command the robotic agents for facility inspection ...
Abstract: This study explores the comparative advantages of hydro excavation and vacuum truck technology over traditional excavation methods in the construction industry, focusing on environmental impact, risk management, and cost-benefit analysis. The research employs a mixed-methods approach, including case studies from recent construction projects, interviews with industry professionals, and a review ...
Abstract: In Japan's construction sites, there is a demand for increased productivity in construction management operations. Furthermore, the aging of engineers is progressing, and there is a need to inherit the know-how of veteran engineers efficiently. The use of digital technology is considered effective in addressing these challenges. In construction planning ...
Abstract: In Japan, urban construction projects often require demolition of existing structures, and the number of high-rise building demolition cases has been increasing in recent years. Conventional above-ground demolition methods include the top-down demolition method, in which heavy equipment is placed on the rooftop to dismantle the structure floor by floor, ...
Abstract: State Departments of Transportation (DOTs) are confronted with growing challenges in managing infrastructure assets due to fragmented data systems, variable quality standards, and limited real-time capabilities as needed. This study suggests a comprehensive, layered, and futured-oriented framework for measuring and improving asset data maturity, specifically tailored to state DOTs. Through ...
Abstract: The evolution of Building Information Modeling (BIM) has emphasized the need for improved construction site design and management. However, existing standards and regulations lack integration of yard data for construction equipment, limiting digital construction site management. This study addresses this gap by developing a standardized framework for characterizing construction-site parameters ...
Abstract: This paper addresses the challenge of efficiently integrating and validating sustainability data within digital bridge models for accurate sustainability assessments. As bridge infrastructure faces growing demands for maintenance and modernization, alongside the increasing importance of climate protection measures and increased traffic load, it is essential to assess the sustainability of ...
Abstract: The rapid integration of Large Language Models (LLMs) into AI-driven project management systems is transforming the construction industry by enhancing efficiency, automation and decision-making. However, the use of LLMs in the processing of sensitive construction documents raises critical privacy and data security concerns. This paper explores the challenges of handling ...
Abstract: Self-compacting concrete (SCC) with multi blended fiber reinforcement is widely used in earthquake zones. However, workability tests of the SCC are susceptible to human error and time consuming to assess. In this study, image analysis techniques are utilized to assess the filling ability, passing ability, and segregation resistance tests of ...
Abstract: The participation of women in civil engineering, particularly in the construction industry, remains lower than that of their male counterparts, especially in leadership and decision-making roles. Despite regulatory advances and gender equity initiatives, structural barriers persist, limiting their professional development and retention in the sector. The literature suggests that these ...
Abstract: While awaiting the final cost and time overrun for the Stuttgart's new central station-yet another complex megaproject seemingly gone wrong-a broader look at civil engineering projects might reveal a different pattern. The Danish Auditor General analysed 41 civil engineering projects in Denmark (railroads, stations, motorways, bridges, etc.) costing 10,3B Euros ...
Abstract: A contemporary definition of regenerative building is "a built environment that strives to create positive environmental impacts that match or surpass those provided by ecosystems and native habitats". By 2025 this means using an understanding of the planetary boundaries of resource limits, when designing and constructing new buildings. And it ...
Abstract: Solution of resource leveling problem is conducted with meta-heuristic algorithms, mathematical programming, and branch and bound algorithms. However, none of the algorithms can guarantee providing the exact solution of the problem when the number of activities is more than 60. In this study, solution of resource leveling with complete evaluation ...
Abstract: Silicon carbide (SiC), a compound of silicon and carbon, is receiving increased attention in the construction sector due to its exceptional mechanical, thermal, and electromagnetic properties. This literature review examines the integration of SiC into concrete and other construction materials, with a focus on its potential to enhance performance, sustainability, ...
Abstract: As global energy demands rise and the push for sustainable infrastructure intensifies, piezoelectric energy harvesting has emerged as a promising technology for capturing energy from road traffic. However, despite numerous advancements in piezoelectric transducer design, there remains a significant gap in the literature regarding the economic feasibility of these systems, ...
Abstract: Although digital technologies have enhanced structural designers' capabilities for optimal designs, reliance on manual workflows still poses obstacles in modeling, analysis, and optimization. This raises the question of feasibility for a combined framework, focusing on an adaptive, automated workflow to transform hand-sketched truss designs into optimized structural models in a ...
Abstract: While organizational control and time pressure are ubiquitous to design services, their co-existence brings about intricate impacts on design creativity. This study thus aims to examine how organizational control and time pressure jointly affect design creativity. It adopted a configurational perspective to investigate the combined effects of multiple control strategies ...
Abstract: Red mud is a waste material generated during the processing of bauxite into aluminum. However, its disposal and management present significant environmental challenges. This study investigates the utilization of red mud (RM) as a partial replacement for cement in High Compressive Strength Concrete (HCSC) at 10% and 20% replacement levels. ...
Abstract: In the dynamic environment of project-based collaborations, trust between project owners and contractors is critical for fostering effective partnerships and ensuring successful outcomes. However, much of the existing research on trust in these settings tends to adopt a static perspective. It is therefore important to explore how trust evolves over ...
Abstract: In recent decades, research in Information Technology in Construction (ITC) has flourished, with growing output across topics such as BIM, automation, AI, and digital twins. However, this growth in quantity has not necessarily been matched by intellectual novelty. This paper critically examines the "interestingness" of ITC research, drawing on theoretical ...
Abstract: On construction sites, providing clear and efficient work instructions to foremen during site inspections, known as "follow-up work," is essential but often burdensome and time-consuming. Follow-up work on construction sites should be carried out daily, where site managers must visit the site, take photos of identified issues, return to the ...
Abstract: At present, it is commonly accepted that our economy requires to return to a circular system, similar to some pre-industrialized economies though, this time, rushed by environmental and social negative impacts, rather than economic constrains. After decades of circularity assessments of buildings, the construction sector still lacks specialized tools that ...
Abstract: The rehabilitation of buildings is a pressing global requirement that could contribute to reduce the negative economic, environmental and social impacts of the construction sector. Current documentation on existing obsolete building stock is missing or outdated. Therefore, digital models need to be generated, such as creating building information models from ...
Abstract: This study explores the use of Building Information Modelling (BIM) on the design, construction, and operation of hospital projects of the United States Department of Veteran Affairs (VA). Given the complexity and importance of healthcare facilities, the study focuses on how BIM enhances project outcomes, particularly in projects managed by ...
Abstract: Building Information Modeling (BIM) has become increasingly popular in the German construction industry, particularly in transport infrastructure, to achieve project goals more reliably and increase productivity. Due to strong political demand to expand BIM applications, authorities need to demonstrate its added value, especially concerning cost-effectiveness. Existing approaches to examining BIM's ...
Abstract: Cost contingency is typically defined as an amount added to the base cost estimate to cover uncertainty and risk exposure. Contingency is included in the client's project budget. To decide on the contingency amount, clients refer to experience (recorded in a manner specific to the business entity) and analysis of ...
Abstract: Construction projects in remote locations face intensified risks that directly impact cost and schedule performance due to logistical complexities, limited accessibility, and absence of nearby infrastructure. Empirical reports suggest that these projects are significantly more prone to delays, budget overruns, and operational disruptions, often resulting from inadequate planning, seasonal constraints, ...
Abstract: Estimating and managing construction site safety costs remains a critical issue within the construction sector's digital processes. Despite the adoption of Building Information Modeling (BIM), safety-related cost items are still in natural language and commonly handled using spreadsheets and unstructured PDF documents, resulting in documents containing disjointed data and unrelated ...
Abstract: Besides robotic-based manufacturing in the prefabrication of the construction elements, on-site robotic-based construction technologies also tend to increase their relevance. In the case of such construction tasks, e.g. automated bricklaying, that involve robotic element placement activities, the precision of the placement of the elements by robotic actuators is influenced by ...
Abstract: Robotic systems are increasingly present on construction sites, introducing new challenges related to safety, spatial coordination, cognitive workload, and worker stress. This paper takes initial steps toward understanding both the spatial and cognitive dimensions of human proximity behavior within human-robot interaction (HRI), particularly focusing on how concrete 3D printing robots ...
Abstract: Conventional wastewater management systems incur substantial costs due to the uniform treatment of all household effluent, regardless of its contamination level. In typical residential plumbing, greywater (GW) and blackwater (BW) are combined and directed to centralized treatment facilities, where both are processed as high-strength wastewater. This approach overlooks the relatively ...
Abstract: Marine concrete structures in the Baltic Sea-including breakwaters, piers, and historic fortifications-play a vital role in coastal protection, navigation, and cultural heritage. Now exceeding their design lives, these assets are increasingly threatened by harsh brackish conditions, freeze-thaw cycles, and environmental contamination. Traditional diver-based inspections are hazardous and offer limited insight ...